Mpox

Mpox (monkeypox) is a zoonotic virus (animal-to-human transmission) endemic in parts of Central and West Africa. It is caused by the mpox virus which belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family. Mpox can be transmitted human-to-human by close contact with skin lesions, body fluids, respiratory droplets, and contaminated materials. There is emerging evidence around presence in semen, but uncertainty about this as a form of transmission.

There are two clades of mpox, Clades I and II. The case fatality ratio for the Clade II has been documented to be around 1%, whereas for Clade I, it may be as high as 10%.

In the 2022 global outbreak of mpox, the first case was identified in the United Kingdom on 7 May 2022 in a recent traveller from Nigeria. At the time of writing on 31 October 2022, global case numbers were over 70,000 confirmed cases across more than 100 countries.

Most cases within this outbreak are men who have sex with men (MSM) with no travel history to Central or West Africa. The 2022 outbreak has been of the less severe Clade II mpox virus.

Mpox classically presents with a prodrome with fever, aches and lymphadenopathy, followed by a characteristic centrifugal rash with the lesions first appearing on the face and moving to distal extremities. The rash also progresses through four stages simultaneously from macules to papules, vesicles then pustules, followed by scabbing.

In the 2022 outbreak, presentations of mpox have been atypical:

• The rash/lesions may be localised to ano-genital skin, or oropharynx or rectal mucosa (proctitis)
• There may be a solitary lesion
• The rash/lesions may not necessarily progress through four stages as described above
• Systemic symptoms may be absent or have developed after the onset of rash.

The clinical presentation is similar to diseases that are more commonly encountered in clinical practice, such as hand foot and mouth disease, varicella zoster, herpes simplex, syphilis and molluscum contagiosum. As a result, more common causes of acute rashes with similar appearances should be considered and excluded where possible.

However, co-infections have occurred sporadically, and given the evolving epidemiology of mpox, patients with a rash suggestive of mpox should be considered for testing, even if other conditions are likely.

For more information of the outbreak please refer to:

• Te Whatu Ora
• Mpox photos and dermatologist advice
• World Health Organization
• United Kingdom
• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• World Organisation for Animal Health

Clinical criteria

• A clinically compatible illness characterised by the presence of acute unexplained[1] skin and/or mucosal lesions or proctitis (for example anorectal pain, bleeding)
• AND

Epidemiological criteria

At least one of the following:

• exposure[2] to a confirmed or probable case in the 21 days before symptom onset
• is a priority group for testing
• at this time priority groups for testing include the following:
  • persons who had multiple[3] or anonymous sexual partners in the 21 days before symptom onset
  • gay, bisexual or other men who have sex with men (MSM)
• history of travel to a country where mpox is endemic[4] in the 21 days before symptom onset.

• Under investigation: A person that has been reported to a Medical Officer of Health, but information is not yet available to classify it as confirmed, probable or not a case.
• Probable: A person who meets the clinical and epidemiological criteria and laboratory confirmation is not possible
• Confirmed: A person with laboratory definitive evidence.
• Not a case: A person that has been investigated and subsequently found not to meet the case definition.

• To confirm or exclude a diagnosis of mpox in suspected cases.
• To confirm the clade type of the monkeypox virus (MPXV).
• To guide in the management, control and prevention of mpox cases.

Testing should be prioritised to patients who meet clinical and epidemiological criteria for mpox (see case definitions section).   

Approval from the medical officer of health or the clinical microbiologist is not required for mpox testing.   

The medical officer of health should discuss the following with the clinical microbiologist on call.

• Urgent mpox testing for immunocompromised patients or cases requiring significant public health action. If agreed the on-call clinical microbiologist will arrange prompt processing with the laboratory.  
• Clade typing (see clade I and clade II typing below).

Public health services should advise clinicians: 

• that patients should not be sent to a community collection centre 
• clinical assessment and testing should be undertaken by the treating physician.  

Laboratory definitive evidence for a confirmed case requires monkeypox virus (MPXV) detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (nucleic acid amplification test) from an appropriate sample (swabs from skin or mucosal lesions). A positive MPXV laboratory result indicates the patient is actively infected at the time of testing.  

Samples should be collected by the treating physician.  

Multiple samples from different lesions (if present) are recommended. Pustules should be gently deroofed and the contents collected on a swab.  

A viral throat swab can be taken if there are lesions in the throat but not recommended in the absence of lesions in the throat.    

Personal protective equipment should be worn when collecting a sample from a person with suspected or confirmed mpox. To minimise the risk of environmental contamination and transmission, healthcare workers are to remove gloves, perform hand hygiene, and put on a new pair of gloves after completing the sample collection. 

Monkeypox virus detection by polymerase chain reaction 

Monkeypox virus polymerase chain reaction (MPXV PCR) is the test of choice for the detection of monkeypox virus.  

PCR tests (and other nucleic acid amplification tests) have good sensitivity especially if more than one lesion has been sampled. The test is carried out using material collected from skin/mucosal lesions, dry crusts from scabbed lesions or fluid collected from pustules using a swab in universal transport medium. Multiple samples of lesions are recommended for each person.  

In cases where the clinical diagnosis is consistent with mpox and the MPXV is negative, a repeat sample is recommended.  

Samples are routinely processed throughout the country. Turnaround times may vary depending on routine testing or increased testing demand. 

Clade I and clade II typing

Samples can be referred to ESR for clade identification if this cannot be undertaken locally.  

Indications for a medical officer of health to request diagnostic laboratories to forward mpox samples for clade identification include:

• epidemiological link to a country with known clade I infections (currently African countries, may later include others as outbreak progresses)
• unusual epidemiology for clade II; including female, child
• severe presentation requiring hospitalisation (unless clear epidemiological link to clade II case).

Situations where clade identification is not indicated.

• Epidemiological link to known clade II case.

Situations where clade identification should be considered depending on evolving epidemiology.

• Any sporadic case unknown source without other indications for clade identification.

Whole genome sequencing

Samples can be referred for whole genome sequencing to determine the clade subtype (clade Ia/Ib, clade IIa/IIb) if required. Samples requiring whole genome sequencing must be discussed with the clinical microbiologist.

The natural reservoir of mpox virus remains unknown. However, it has been isolated from several African rodents and primates, including the Gambian pouched rat, tree squirrel, rope squirrel and sooty mangabey monkey.

The incubation period is typically 7 to 14 days, with a range of 5 to 21 days. The incubation period may be influenced by the route of transmission, with invasive exposure (eg, contact with broken skin or mucous membrane) having a shorter incubation period than non-invasive exposure. This is why contacts are asked to monitor for symptoms and take precautions for 21 days from exposure.

In Africa, mpox is a zoonosis with transmission typically occurring animal-to-human via rodents.

Mpox virus does not spread easily between people, but it can be transmitted person-to-person by close contact (including sexual contact) with skin lesions, body fluids, respiratory droplets (when masks aren’t worn), and contaminated materials such as bedding. There has been evidence that it is present in semen, but it is uncertain whether it can be transmitted this way.

The infectious period begins with the onset of symptoms, either prodromal or rash. Cases remain infectious until the rash has resolved, and all lesions have formed scabs and fallen off, leaving fresh skin underneath. Cases are not considered infectious prior to the onset of symptoms, however some cases may not be aware of their exact symptom onset date as initial symptoms may be both very subtle and/or not visible.

Mpox is a notifiable infectious disease in Schedule 1 of the Health Act 1956 from Thursday 9 June 2022. Health practitioners are required to notify the Medical Officer of Health on suspicion of a case, prior to collection of any samples. Heads of medical laboratories are required to notify the Medical Officer of Health of any NAAT result positive for mpox virus.

In the event of a case under investigation, probable or confirmed detected within New Zealand, Public Health/the Medical Officer of Health must contact the on-call Communicable Diseases Officer (0800 GET MOH or notifycommdiseases@health.govt.nz). If a case is notified after usual business hours, a Medical Officer of Health may use their discretion as to when they report the case; reporting after usual business hours or awaiting until usual business hours if sufficient information is available ascertain that the risk to public health is low. If after hours, and initial indications suggest risk of potential onward transmission or high-risk factors, then the case should be reported via calling 0800 GET MOH.

One case of mpox identified in New Zealand constitutes an outbreak.

See Appendix 5: Escalation pathways for more information

All suspected cases should be investigated with an interview to determine symptom history including:

• onset date
• any travel history
• identification of any high-risk settings
• any exposure to a confirmed or probable case
• the nature of any contact with a confirmed or probable case
• sexual contact, and intimate partners within 21 days of symptom onset
• smallpox and mpox vaccination status
• other relevant clinical findings to exclude other common causes of rash.

Risk factors for severe disease

The suspected case should be assessed for risk factors that could cause them to experience more serious disease, including:

• age (very young children are at greater risk)
• having or having had a history of severe atopic eczema
• being pregnant or recently post-partum
• having extensive lesions at an anatomic site that could lead to complications
• being immunocompromised.

Where risk factors are present, consider involvement of additional clinicians from a relevant specialty.

Infection prevention control requirements

Contact and droplet precautions should be used in addition to standard precautions for physical examination of cases and when collecting samples from the lesions. Standard Precautions, Contact and Droplet Precautions. This includes the use of eye protection, Type II fluid resistant medical mask, fluid repellent gown and gloves. Upgrade mask to an P2/N95 when undertaking medical procedures involving the oropharynx (oropharyngeal samples). A medical mask is sufficient for preliminary clinical assessment and handling used contaminated linen, clothing, or towels.

Suspected cases awaiting test results

When testing for mpox, the clinician should ascertain the person’s history and symptoms and liaise with public health if they think mpox is the likely clinical diagnosis.

Risk assessment

Restriction requirements will be decided by public health based on the following factors that increase risk of spread to others.

• Where the clinician has a very high index of suspicion that the person has mpox, such as those who are known sexual or intimate contacts of a case, or those who have attended a high-risk setting, such as a sex-on-site venue or festival, during their incubation period.
• The presence of oral mucous membrane lesions.
• The presence of lesions that are not able to be easily covered—for instance lesions on the face or hands.
• The presence of systemic symptoms, including cold or flu symptoms such as fever, body aches, vomiting or diarrhoea.

Those awaiting test results where there is a high index of clinical suspicion, are recommended to follow these precautions:

• not to have sexual or intimate activities, including kissing and hugging and all skin-to-skin contact with other people
• if they develop systemic symptoms, uncoverable or oral lesions while awaiting their test result, they should advise their clinician or public health representative
• to avoid, where possible, all face-to-face contact with people at high risk of serious disease from mpox. This includes being excluded from work or education if their usual activities are likely to bring them into direct skin-to-skin contact with high-risk people. High-risk groups include pregnant people, young children, people with severe atopic eczema, and immunocompromised people
• that they must inform any healthcare setting they plan on attending that they are awaiting the results of a test from mpox prior to attending.

For confirmed or probable cases

The medical officer of health will advise the case on their management plan. Probable and confirmed cases need to have a risk assessment carried out by public health and take precautions to prevent onward transmission. They must continue taking precautions until they are no longer infectious, which is until their lesions have crusted, the scab has fallen off and a fresh layer of skin has formed underneath (symptoms normally last 14–28 days).

Below are the precautions which may be put in place:

• Avoid physical contact, particularly sexual contact over this period (including kissing, intimate touching).
• Cover skin lesions (where possible) when around others.
• Where possible, sleep in a separate room and limit contact with household members.
• Do not share clothing, bedding, towels and unwashed crockery and cutlery.
• Avoid close direct contact with animals, including domestic animals, (such as cats, dogs, mice, and other rodents), livestock, and other captive animals, as well as wildlife due to the possibility of human-to-animal transmission.
• Dispose of all waste, including medical waste, in a safe manner which is not accessible to rodents and other scavenger animals.
• Where possible, avoid use of contact lenses to prevent infection of the eyes. Where this is not possible, ensure hands are thoroughly washed prior to touching lenses or eyes, and that there are no open lesions on hands (cover these where present).
• Do not donate blood, cells, tissue, breast milk, semen, organs, or faeces.
• Avoid contact with people who are at risk of serious illness, including immunocompromised people, young children, people with a history of severe atopic eczema, and pregnant people. If this is not possible with the case’s living situation, this should be escalated to the medical officer of health.
• Inform healthcare providers of their diagnosis prior to visiting so that appropriate safeguards can be put in place for staff and other patients.

 Public Health follow up

Public Health should follow up cases at regular intervals via phone or email to check that symptoms are resolving and are well controlled. The medical officer of health will continue to assess whether the case should remain under restrictions. Such assessments must consider the cases occupation and workplace environment including presence of and contact with people at high risk of serious illness from mpox, ability to work from home, ability to physically distance at workplace, etc.

The following factors may be taken into account when considering removal of recommended precautions restrictions:

• It is at least 7 days since first rash/lesion onset.
• No new lesions for 48 hours.
• No oral mucous membrane lesions, or all oral mucous membrane lesions completely healed (scab has fallen off and fresh skin has formed underneath).
• No fever or other systemic symptoms due to mpox for 72 hours.
• All lesions on exposed skin (hands, arms, face) have scabbed over, the scab has fallen off and fresh skin has formed underneath or can adequately cover any unhealed lesions with a dressing and/or clothing.
• Not immunocompromised (note that a case with HIV who has an undetectable viral load would not be considered immunocompromised). Immunocompromised cases to be managed on a case-by-case basis with their treating clinician.

This may mean cases can return to work if deemed safe to do so by the medical officer of health.

If new symptoms develop which cause the medical officer of health to believe there is a greater risk to public health posed by the case, restrictions may again be put in place. It is anticipated this will be rare and exceptional.

Cases can be fully released from public health management when all lesions have crusted, scabs have fallen off and a fresh layer of skin has formed underneath.

The medical officer of health will advise (either in person or via photographic evidence) that all lesions are healed and recommend lifting of restrictions.

Condom use during sexual activity (where a cases semen could come in contact with another person) is recommended for 3 months as the virus may still be present in semen.

Most cases recover within 2–4 weeks and will not require specific treatment other than good supportive management or treatment of complications, for example, pain relief and antibiotics for secondary cellulitis.

Advice on clinical management should be sought from an infectious diseases or sexual health physician. The use of antivirals should be considered by an infectious disease team for all cases with moderate to severe symptoms based on available evidence. Refer to the HealthPathways for further mpox information.

Advise the case of the nature of infection and mode of transmission. Educate cases regarding high-risk people, activities, and settings to avoid while infectious.

For more sexual health support and information please access the following websites:

• OutLine
• Burnett Foundation
• Rainbow Youth website
• Just the Facts website

Close contact    

A close contact is any person with one or more of the following exposures to a probable or confirmed mpox case during their infectious period.   

• Direct physical contact with skin lesions or mucous membranes of a case (i.e. skin to skin, skin to mucous membranes, mucous membrane to mucous membrane) through close physical, intimate or sexual contact.
• Direct contact with potentially contaminated materials (bed linens, towels, clothing) from a case) which may contain crusts from lesions or bodily fluids from a case.

The close contact designation can also be applied to individuals who attended a high-risk exposure event linked to mpox cases and were involved in intimate or sexual activity with others, even if a direct link to a confirmed case at that event cannot be established.   

Healthcare close contacts 

A healthcare worker may be deemed a close contact if they have had one or more of the following exposures without appropriate personal protective equipment. See Appendix 6: Infection, prevention and control guidance

• Direct physical contact with case materials, crusts from lesions, or bodily fluids.
• Direct contact with potentially contaminated materials (bed linens, healthcare equipment) which may contain crusts from lesions or bodily fluids from a case.
• Presence in an enclosed room within 1.5 metres of a case during aerosol generating procedures.
• Sharps injury (including to cleaning or laboratory staff).

Casual contact 

A casual contact is any person who spent time with an mpox case during their infectious period who does not meet the definition of a close contact. Most household contacts will be casual contacts. The risk of infection for casual contacts is very low and is not significantly higher than for the general public.  

Contact tracing should focus on identifying individuals who had close contact with an infectious case from the start of their prodrome symptoms, or 24 hours before lesion or rash onset for cases without prodrome until all lesions are healed. 

Close contacts should be assessed to determine if they are in a high-risk group for developing more serious disease, so that further guidance can be provided as required.  

High-risk groups include:

• pregnant people
• young children 
• people with severe atopic eczema
• immunocompromised people, including people living with poorly controlled HIV infection (CD4 count <200 cells/μL).

General information for close contacts

Close contacts are not required to quarantine.   

For 21 days after their last exposure to a case, the following precautions are recommended to reduce the risk of transmitting mpox to others. 

• Close contacts will be actively monitored by Public Health Services, but individuals should continue to self-monitor for symptoms and seek advice from their healthcare provider or public health team if these develop.
• Avoid intimate or sexual contact with others. 
• Advise public health if they are planning to travel outside the region/country, so their management can be transferred. 

Avoiding intimate and sexual contact is recommended because lesions can be difficult to detect, which means the contact could spread mpox to others before they are aware they are infected. This is more likely if there are small numbers of lesions or the lesions are small, which may be more likely in vaccinated cases, or the lesions are in positions that make them difficult to see. 

Work restrictions 

The medical officer of health should determine if restrictions from attending work are required.  This may be appropriate if the contact works in occupations where close physical or intimate contact is required, or if the setting includes individuals at risk of severe symptoms.  

Decisions about work restrictions for asymptomatic contacts who work in healthcare settings should be made in consultation with the relevant occupational health and or Infection Prevention and Control team if available. At a minimum, healthcare worker contacts should follow all infection, prevention and control recommendations to minimise risk of transmission and should immediately report any possible symptoms. 

Symptomatic close contacts 

Contacts who develop skin lesions should be referred to a health provider for clinical assessment and testing. Testing is not recommended for contacts with prodromal symptoms. See Labotory testing guidelines section for more information. 

In addition to the precautions for all close contacts above, symptomatic contacts should do the following until mpox is excluded. 

• Cover all lesions with clothing, dressings or band aids.  
• Avoid contact with people in high-risk groups. 
• Avoid sharing bed linens, towels or clothing with others. 
• Phone before attending healthcare services and advise they have been exposed to mpox and wear a mask when attending. 

Contacts with prodromal symptoms should be advised to follow recommended restrictions until further symptoms develop and testing can be performed, or all symptoms resolve. 

Casual contacts

Casual contacts should be advised to monitor for symptoms for 21 days and to contact their health provider if these develop. No other precautions are required.  

Public health services should actively monitor close contacts for 21 days after their last close contact with the mpox case. Daily monitoring is not required. The mode of monitoring can be determined by the public health service after discussion with the contact.  

No monitoring is required for casual contacts. 

Release from public health follow up is at the discretion of the medical officer of health.   

If resources are limited, post exposure vaccination should be prioritised. Refer to the Immunisation Handbook for more detailed information on the mpox vaccine.

Post exposure vaccination

Close contacts who have not had two mpox vaccine doses should be offered a single dose of mpox vaccine to help prevent or attenuate (lessen the severity of) mpox. Post exposure vaccination is most effective if given within 4 days of exposure and can be given up to 14 days after exposure.  

Contacts who receive their first mpox vaccine as post exposure vaccination should be advised to have a second dose of the mpox vaccine 4 weeks later if they remain mpox symptom free. This is particularly important for contacts who have an ongoing risk of exposure to mpox. 

General prevention

Contacts outside of the window for post exposure vaccination should be offered vaccination if there is an ongoing risk of exposure or if they meet other eligibility criteria.  

• Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. 2020. Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution. Viruses 12(11): 1257. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12111257
• Brown K, Leggat PA. 2016. Human Monkeypox: Current State of Knowledge and Implications for the Future. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 1(1): pps. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed1010008
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Monkeypox: how it Spreads. Available from https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/transmission.html
• Communicable Diseases Network Australia. 2022. Monkeypox Virus Infection: CDNA Interim National Guidelines for Public Health Units: Version 2.0. Available from https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/monkeypox-virus-infection-cdna-national-guidelines-for-public-health-units
• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 2022. Factsheet for health professionals on monkeypox. Available from https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/monkeypox/factsheet-health-professionals
• Health Protection Surveillance Centre. 2022. Interim Public Health Guidance for the Management of Monkeypox Cases and their Contacts: Version 1.9. Available from: https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/zoonotic/monkeypox/guidance/Public%20Health%20Advice%20for%20Monkeypox%20Infection%20advice%20for%20confirmed%20cases%20and%20close%20contacts.pdf
• Miura F, van Ewijk CE, Backer JA, Xiridou M, Franz E, Op de Coul E, et al. 2022. Estimated incubation period for monkeypox cases confirmed in the Netherlands. Eurosurveillance 27(24): 2200448. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.24.2200448
• Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, Likofata J, Mukadi D, Monroe B, et al. 2016. Extended Human-to-Human Transmission during a Monkeypox Outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerging Infectious Diseases 22(6): 1014-21. https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2206.150579
• UK Health Security Agency. 2022. Guidance Principles for monkeypox control in the UK: 4 nations consensus statement. Available from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/principles-for-monkeypox-control-in-the-uk-4-nations-consensus-statement/principles-for-monkeypox-control-in-the-uk-4-nations-consensus-statementhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/principles-for-monkeypox-control-in-the-uk-4-nations-consensus-statement/principles-for-mpox-control-in-the-uk-4-nations-consensus-statement
• World Health Organization. 2022. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for mpox: Interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Available from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1
• World Health Organization. 2022. Disease Outbreak News; Multi-country outbreak of mpox, External situation report #2. Available from https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/multi-country-outbreak-of-monkeypox--external-situation-report--2---25-july-2022
• World Health Organization. 2022. Mpox. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypoxhttps://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox

[1] More common causes of acute rashes with similar appearances should be considered and excluded where possible; varicella zoster, herpes simplex, syphilis, molluscum contagiosum. 

[2] Exposure: direct physical contact with skin or skin lesions, including sexual contact; or contact with contaminated materials such as clothing, bedding, or utensils; or prolonged face-to-face contact, including health care workers without appropriate PPE.

[3] Two or more

[4] Per WHO

[5] These symptoms include: Any Rash, lesions, sores, blisters, or other skin changes not due to other known causes; Headache; Fever; Lymphadenopathy (any lumps or swelling around the neck, armpits, or groin); Myalgia (muscle aches & pains); Arthralgia (joint stiffness); Backache; Rectal pain, discharge, or constipation